Marcia's Baby Boy Weighed 8 Pounds at Birth. How Much Should He Weigh by 4 Months of Age?
Learning Objectives
- Explicate the physical evolution that occurs from infancy through childhood
- Explicate the cognitive development that occurs from infancy through childhood
Physical Development
In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body's concrete development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh betwixt v and 10 pounds, and a newborn's weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years sometime the weight volition accept quadrupled, and so we can expect that a two year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The boilerplate length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.iv inches by 2 years quondam (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Grouping, 2006).
Effigy one. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit "left": modification of piece of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit "heart-left": modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit "eye-right": modification of work by "devinf"/Flickr; credit "correct": modification of work by Rose Spielman)
During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, & Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows betwixt iv and 6 years old: During this time children proceeds 5–7 pounds and abound well-nigh 2–3 inches per year. Once girls accomplish viii–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until effectually 12 years quondam, coinciding with the start of the menstrual bike. By ten years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.
We are born with all of the brain cells that we volition e'er take—about 100–200 billion neurons (nervus cells) whose function is to store and transmit data (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997). Even so, the nervous organization continues to abound and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is and so followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the encephalon to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the outset few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in diverse areas of the brain.
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The size of our brains increases apace. For example, the encephalon of a ii-year-onetime is 55% of its adult size, and by half-dozen years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3–6), the frontal lobes grow quickly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the encephalon earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, retention, and impulse control. Therefore, past the time children reach schoolhouse historic period, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attending and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget'south sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cerebral advances (Kolb & Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, & Peuster, 1992).
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Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence equally infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For case, babies first larn to concord their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit down unassisted, followed later by crawling and and so walking.
Motor skills refer to our ability to motion our bodies and manipulate objects. Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of minor deportment (e.grand., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). Gross motor skills focus on big musculus groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (east.g., balancing, running, and jumping).
As motor skills develop, at that place are certain developmental milestones that immature children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an boilerplate age, besides as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, virtually babies sit lonely at 7 months erstwhile. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle force, and 90% of babies reach this milestone betwixt 5 and nine months old. In some other case, babies on boilerplate are able to hold up their caput at half dozen weeks one-time, and ninety% of babies achieve this between iii weeks and 4 months old. If a babe is not holding upwards his head by 4 months erstwhile, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for business organization, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child's pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early on intervention.
| Age (years) | Physical | Personal/Social | Language | Cognitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| two | Kicks a brawl; walks upwards and downward stairs | Plays aslope other children; copies adults | Points to objects when named; puts 2–four words together in a sentence | Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions |
| 3 | Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle | Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self | Names familiar things; uses pronouns | Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles) |
| 4 | Catches balls; uses scissors | Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests | Knows songs and rhymes by memory | Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters |
| 5 | Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon | Distinguishes existent from pretend; likes to please friends | Speaks clearly; uses full sentences | Counts to 10 or college; prints some letters and copies basic shapes |
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Effigy 2. Man with a baby.
Cerebral Development
In improver to rapid physical growth, immature children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children's ability to understand objects—such equally learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken—was a cerebral skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers accept found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, & Wu, 2011). For case, children as young every bit 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the backdrop of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling downwards a rails and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was really hollow, was placed adjacent to the runway. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. And then the box was placed on the rails to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it connected unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure ii). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot laissez passer through each other. Baillargeon's findings suggest that very immature children take an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is across their cerebral abilities due to their express experiences in the world.
Figure two. In Baillargeon'south study, infants observed a truck (a) curl down an unobstructed rail, (b) scroll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll downwardly and laissez passer through what appeared to be an obstacle.
Just equally there are concrete milestones that we expect children to attain, in that location are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For case, infants milk shake their head "no" effectually 6–9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like "wave bye-bye" or "blow a kiss" around 9–12 months. Remember Piaget's ideas nigh object permanence? We tin await children to grasp the concept that objects proceed to be even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months onetime) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come up back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also bespeak to pictures in books and wait in appropriate places when you inquire them to find objects.
Simply as there are concrete milestones that nosotros expect children to reach, there are also cerebral milestones . It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, trouble solve, and communicate. For instance, infants milk shake their caput "no" effectually 6–9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like "wave bye-bye" or "blow a osculation" effectually 9–12 months. Remember Piaget'due south ideas almost object permanence? We tin wait children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist fifty-fifty when they are not in sight past around eight months erstwhile. Considering toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hibernate and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come dorsum (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and expect in appropriate places when you enquire them to notice objects.
Preschool-age children (i.e., three–5 years old) also brand steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, proper noun colors, and tell you their proper noun and age, only they can also make some decisions on their own, such every bit choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (due east.one thousand., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to relish the use of humor in stories. Because they tin recall symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. Ane of the most common examples of their cerebral growth is their blossoming marvel. Preschool-historic period children love to inquire "Why?"
An of import cognitive alter occurs in children this age. Think that Piaget described 2–3 yr olds as egocentric, meaning that they practise not have an awareness of others' points of view. Between 3 and five years former, children come to sympathize that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are unlike from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children tin apply this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a processed bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).
An important cognitive alter occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2–3 yr olds every bit egocentric, pregnant that they do not have an awareness of others' points of view. Betwixt three and 5 years onetime, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory of mind (TOM). Children tin utilize this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might exist angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).
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Cognitive skills continue to expand in centre and tardily childhood (6–11 years onetime). Idea processes get more logical and organized when dealing with concrete data (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the by, present, and hereafter, giving them the power to program and piece of work toward goals. Additionally, they tin can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. Withal, children's attending spans tend to be very limited until they are around xi years former. After that betoken, it begins to meliorate through adulthood.
Figure 3. Considering they sympathize luck and fairness, children in middle and late babyhood (vi–eleven years old) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)
One well-researched aspect of cerebral development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the lodge in which children learn linguistic communication structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You lot've also learned that some psychological researchers take proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for linguistic communication acquisition.
Starting before nativity, babies brainstorm to develop linguistic communication and communication skills. At nascency, babies apparently recognize their female parent's voice and can discriminate betwixt the linguistic communication(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they prove preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and at that place is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo near immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel audio (e.chiliad., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French volition coo in a different tone than a infant whose parents speak Castilian or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Blathering begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her offset give-and-take for meaning, and to beginning combining words for meaning at about 18 months.
At about two years former, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they accept a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid step. This is sometimes referred to as the "vocabulary spurt" and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10–20 new words per week. Recent enquiry may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, information technology is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger & Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand well-nigh 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and proper name the days of the week. Vii twelvemonth olds speak fluently and use slang and clichés (Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn linguistic communication in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through beingness understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, "me juice," to which his mother might respond past giving him a loving cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner's theory and proposed that nosotros are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that linguistic communication acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For case, when a two-yr-old kid asks for juice, he might say, "me juice," to which his female parent might respond past giving him a cup of apple juice.
Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner's theory and proposed that we are all built-in with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky chosen this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that nosotros are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers at present believe that linguistic communication acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic surroundings (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
Everyday Connectedness: The Importance of Play and Recess
According to the American University of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child's development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.
Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing and then, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can really increase how much they enjoy concrete action. This helps back up the development of a healthy heart and encephalon. Unfortunately, research suggests that today's children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of concrete action in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik & Kanekar, 2012).
Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little complimentary time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess equally a form of punishment. Do you hold with these practices? Why or why non?
Glossary
cognitive empathy:ability to take the perspective of others and to feel business concern for others
fine motor skills:use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions
gross motor skills:use of large muscle groups to control artillery and legs for large body movements
motor skills:ability to movement our body and manipulate objects
reinforcement:feedback that strengthens future behavior
theory of heed:that children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from their ain
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